Probl] 



■ ' i n ii ■■ 



By Fred D. Crawshaw 



MANUAL ART* 

Peoria, Illinois 




Class. 
Book. 



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Copyright!^?- 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



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PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 

By FRED D.^ CRAW SHAW, B. S., M. E. 

Assistant Dean, College of Engineering, The University of Illinois; 

Author of "Problems in Furniture Making" 

and "Metal Spinning" 




THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS 
PEORIA, ILLINOIS 






Ls 



COPYRIGHT. 1909 

THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS, 

PEORIA, ILLINOIS 



ICI.A252759 



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J 



FOREWORD. 



WOOD-TURNING doubtless is an art. However, if the statements which follow in this text 
are facts, the subject comprises some of the elements of a science. The art of wood-turning 
is the ability of the operator to skilfully handle the tools in making the several wood-turning 
cuts. The science in wood-turning is found in the mathematical principles discovered when these 
cuts are analyzed. 

The following are some of the elements in a course in spindle wood-turning which should re- 
ceive considerable emphasis : skill in handling the tools ; geometrical principles involved ; the applica- 
tion of these principles in objects which have a utilitarian value; and design. There is little possi- 
bility of making the subject as applied in face-plate and chuck turning one of essential interest or 
benefit except in two particulars : first, the study of good form, and second, the study of technical 
principles to be applied in making useful objects. 

This book on wood-turning has been prepared for the following particular reasons : 

First, to help students of wood-turning — especially those who are working under the supervision 
of a teacher. It is, therefore, a text-book. 

Second, to simplify the subject as treated in the average text on wood-turning. 

Third, to show the reason for handling the tool in a particular way for each cut. 

Fourth, to offer by good mechanical drawings a series of problems which, it is hoped, are supe- 
rior in many ways to those usually found in books on this subject. These drawings are not arranged 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD- TURNING 



as a course of study, but their order suggests a logical progression in thought and application of 
principles. 

The point of viezv used in this text is this : A classification of all necessary cuts used in wood- 
turning with a geometrical basis for the handling of the tool for each cut. The usual point of view 
has been a classification or grouping of models with a description of how to turn each model. 

The author is indebted to the many teachers of manual training who have helped him by offer- 
ing suggestions and furnishing designs which have made this book possible. He wishes especially 
to recognize aid from "Vorlagen fur den Handfertigkeits-Unterrecht," published in Strassburg, 
Germany, by Ludolf Beust, and from notes which were furnished by Professor Charles A. Bennett, 
Editor of the Manual Training Magazine. 

F. D. CRAWSHAW. 



CONTENTS. 



Foreword 3 

Form and Proportion 7 

The Care of Wood-turning Chisels 12 

Spindle Turning 13 

Wood-Turner's Kit 14 

The Gouge Used as a Roughing Tool 14 

The Skew Chisel Used to Turn a Cylinder 17 

The Skew Chisel Used to Square the Ends of a Piece 18 

The Skew Chisel Used to Make a Long V or Taper Cut 20 

The Skew Chisel Used to Make Inside Square Corners 22 

The Small Skew Chisel Used to Make V Cuts 23 

The Skew Chisel Used to Make the Convex or Bead Cut 24 

The Gouge Used to Make the Concave Cuts / 2.5 

The Gouge Used to Make Convex Cuts 27 

Face-Plate and Chuck Turning 29 

Center Screw Face-Plate Turning 29 

Face-Plate and Chuck Turning Combined 32 

Finishing and Polishing 35 



FORM AND PROPORTION. 



This section of the text might be headed De- 
sign except that it is believed such a heading 
should be reserved for a place where both con- 
struction and decoration are more prominent than 
they are in wood-turning. Nevertheless, there is 
need of carefully considering form and propor- 
tion in turned work. Inasmuch as wood-turning, 
perhaps more than any other subject in wood- 
working, has been taught by following a set 
course of exercises, it seems that new interest 
may be given the subject by introducing a con- 
sideration of the elements of design. It should 
be understood in this connection that the formal 
exercises, such as Plates 1, 2, and 3, presented in 
this book are preliminary to some application of 
the cuts, such as are shown in Plates 5 to 12. The 
exercises should be made only so long as the oper- 
ator feels uncertain in the control of the tool. In- 
asmuch as the application of the cuts in useful 



articles is of chief importance, some general sug- 
gestions may be given as a guide for the study 
of wood-turning profiles in both their form and 
proportion. 

Students of manual training have been told 
during the past few years that they must inject 
into their work the principles underlying the work 
of the artist and designer. When one attempts 
to do this, he is at once confronted with a mass 
of theory, from which it is difficult to select prin- 
ciples to be applied in the shop. It is hoped that 
the student of wood-turning may be helped by the 
selection herein made. This text is written with 
the idea that brevity and clearness should go hand 
in hand, and with this idea in mind, the following 
generally accepted principles are rather dogmat- 
ically laid down to control the form and propor- 
tions in designs for turning. 

It is safe to say that the use to which an object 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



is to be put should be the principal factor in de- 
termining its general shape. (Fig. 1.) This fact 
does not destroy the possibility of securing what is 
often called harmony in measurements. By this 




Fig. 1. 



term one means the arrangement of varying diam- 
eters and distances to be agreeable to the eye. 
There are degrees of visual agreeableness, how- 
ever, and it is sometimes helpful in making a de- 
sign to use a unit of measure in securing the most 
agreeable forms. The quarter-inch squared paper 
is satisfactory to use for this purpose. It should 
not be supposed that all distances and measure- 
ments must be exact multiples of this unit. The 
unit is selected only as a means to an end, viz : 
pleasing form and proportion. 

The selection of a unit measurement is of little 
importance if it is not accompanied by two other 
measurement selections, viz : a dominant measure 



and a measure sequence. (Fig. 2.) There should 
be some parts of the design which should act as 
a starting point from which all other parts 
are planned, both as regards out- 
line and dimensions. This part 
need not be an extreme in the 
scale of size, but often the small- 
est or largest part is the design 
base for other parts. Also, there 
should be a uniform gradation in 
dimensions from the dominant 
form upward or downward. (Fig. 
2.) This means a constant in- 
creasing or decreasing ratio in 
diameters and distances. In other 
words, difference in profile must 
accompany difference in lengths or distances. 
Such uniform change in ratios is called measure 
sequence. 

The three principles involved in the last two 
paragraphs make for what we most need in any 
design, turning included — unity. By this term 
we mean a holding together of all parts, or a com- 




FORM AND PROPORTION 



mon purpose in the design of all parts. A quota- 
tion which is apropos here is, "Each for all and 
all for each." The word re-echo, perhaps some- 
what abused, has a meaning which illustrates 
rather well the idea of recurring lines which makes 
for unity. There must be no confusion between 
unity and uniformity. Unity is necessary. Uni- 
formity is deadening. In unity there is harmoni- 
ous relation. In uniformity there is monotonous 
sameness. (Fig- 3.) 




Good. 




I have intimated that clearness is a paramount 
consideration in the work of the designer. The 



best guide for the attainment of clearness is some- 
times said to be common sense, but our common 
sense is largely the product of public opinion, 




Gooa 



Fig. 4. 




Bo.a 



which in turn follows in the wake of the views 
of experts. It will be well, therefore, in addition 
to the above general principles to enumerate some 
very specific and practical ones which form a ver- 
itable code for designers : 

A profile should be bold and flowing, not harsh 
and broken. It should not contain too many 
straight lines, if disagreeable, angular results are 
to be avoided. (Fig. 4.) 

A profile, on the other hand, must not be made 
up of soft, weak outlines characterized by the 
curve "that wanders" ; neither starting nor stop- 



*■" 



10 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



ping with a definite purpose. A profile must have 
both grace and vivacity. (Fig. 5.) It is usually safe 



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GoocJ,. 












1 


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to use the circle, ellipse, ovoid, and echinus in 
turning outlines. (Fig. 6.) When these forms 





Fig. 6. 



are either connected or broken the change in out- 
line is made by introducing a fillet or bead at the 
point of change. 




Fig-, 



Ordinarily all curves are joined by some severe 
change in direction which may be considered 
either as continuous or con- 
trasting. (Fig. 7.) A contin- 
uous change is one where 
the successive parts of an 
outline are concentric, or 
parallel, but are offset by 
some line which stops the 
curve of each part. A con- 
trasting change is one where the tangents to the 
curves at the point of change approximate ninety 
degrees. (Fig. 7.) Sharp and acute arcs should 
be rejected as much as possible. The compasses 
should be used with great hesitation. The deco- 
ration of turned objects should be confined to 
small concave and convex cuts or their combina- 
tion at carefully selected points. 

The three general principles laid down at the 
beginning of this chapter and some of the more 
definite ones succeeding them may be combined 
in the following- conclusions : 



FORM AND PROPORTION 




'-^HE^jf- 



Fig. 8. 



(a) As a rule either one, two or three indi- 
vidual and related parts may be used in any ob- 
ject, which is considered 
as a unit mass, and unity 
will be preserved. (Fig. 
8.) If, however, more 
than three parts are 
placed in combination, 
unity is lost unless the 
parts are duplicates one 
of another. In this case, the series is considered 
a unit. (Fig. 9.) 

(b) In an object of one 
|— part there is absolute unity. 

(c) In an object of two 
parts there is unity if the 

parts are of equal size, because of harmony 
coming through symmetry. (Fig. 10.) If the 
two parts are of unequal size unity is the re- 
sult of a direct subordination. (B, Fig. 8.) 



Fig. 9. 



(d) In an object of three parts there is unity 
if the parts are of unequal size because one is 
dominant and the 

other two are re- 
garded subordinate. 
(Fig. 11.) If the 
three parts are equal 
they form the begin- 
ning of a series and 
may be used as a unit 
in a two or three part combination. (Fig. 12.) 

(e) If more than three parts are put in com- 
bination then some natural, logical grouping re- 



Fig. 10. 



Fig. 11. 



h— A— 



B- 

Fig. 12. 



solves the number into a group of three or less, 
(A, B, C, Fig. 12), unless the parts are similar, 
in which case a series is formed (b, Fig. 12). 



THE CARE OF WOOD-TURNING CHISELS. 



There is a saying among mechanics, "A poor 
tool is worse than none," which if accompanied 
by the old saw, "A stitch in time saves nine," 
would make a satisfactory subject for an im- 
portant lesson in any line of mechanical work. 
For no class of mechanics, however, would there 
be greater need of emphasis upon either part 
than for wood-turners. Wood cannot be turned 
satisfactorily with dull tools and the only reason- 
able time to sharpen a tool is when it first begins 
to get dull. 

The cutting edge of the gouge should be 
formed by a ground surface making about twenty 
degrees with the cylindrical surface of the gouge 
blade at the cutting edge. When looking down 
upon the blade, as it is held on the rest for cylin- 
drical work, the cutting edge should appear as a 
semi-circle. 

The skew chisel is ground equally from each 
side of the blade, and the angle between the 



ground surfaces should be about twenty to thirty 
degrees. 

The "skew," or angle which the cutting edge 
makes with the edge of the blade to form the toe 
or acute-angled corner of the skew chisel should 
be from forty-five to sixty degrees, depending 
upon the importance of a pointed tool in the work 
which the skew chisel is to do. 

In all cases the ground surfaces forming the 
cutting edge of the skew chisel should be straight 
when tested by placing a straight-edge on the 
surface in a position at right angles to the cut- 
ting edge. The ground surfaces forming the 
cutting edge should be geometrical planes. In 
testing the ground surface on the gouge the 
straight-edge should take a position at right 
angles to a tangent to the curve of the cutting 
edge at a point where the straight-edge crosses it. 

To sharpen other tools in the wood-turner's 
kit, one needs to be familiar only with the prin- 
ciples set forth above. 



12 



SPINDLE TURNING. 



Spindle turning comprises all work which is 
turned between the head and tail stocks of a 
lathe. It is the class of work in which stu- 
dents first become acquainted with the wood- 
turning lathe and by which they learn the proper 
use of wood-turning tools. 

The stock used for all spindle turning should 
be approximately square in cross-section (Fig. 

13), except for 
pieces to turn three 
or four inches in 
diameter. In these 
the square corners 
should be cut off, 
to make the stock octagonal. To center it in the 
lathe the operator draws diagonals on the ends 
of the piece of wood and drives it onto the spur 
center at the point of intersection of the diago- 
nals. (Fig. 14.) Sometimes it is found conven- 
ient to saw on the diagonals to allow the spur 




Fig. 13. 



center to enter the wood freely. When the 

spur center is set the tail-stock is drawn up to 

within two inches of the 

other end of the piece 

and fastened firmly to 

the bed of the lathe. The 

tail center or dead center Fig. 14. 

is then screwed firmly against this second end of 

the piece to be turned, the sharp point of the cen- 





Fig. 15. 



ter entering the wood on the point of intersec- 
tion of the diagonals. (Fig. 15.) Before the 



14 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



dead center is fastened in position a little oil, 
preferably hard oil, should be placed on its end 
to reduce friction. 

It might be added as a precaution that a drop 
of good machine oil (or better sperm oil) should 
occasionally be used on the bearings of the head- 
stock. A wood-turning lathe revolves at a speed 
of from twelve hundred to three thousand revo- 
lutions per minute and should be kept well lubri- 
cated. 

The tool rest for all wood-turning should be 
raised to such a height that the operator may 

take a comfortable posi- 
tion in his work. For the 
person of average height 
the tool rest for most 
cuts will be kept a little 
below the level of the 
line of centers of .the 
lathe. (Fig. 16.) It 
should always be kept as 
near the revolving stock as possible, to avoid the 
possibility of the tool catching and being drawn 




Fig. 16. 



down between the rest and the revolving wood. 
This would doubtless cause a "bite." A bite is 
a gouging cut that the tool takes out of the stock. 

Wood-Turner's Kit. 

The ordinary wood-turner's kit of tools con- 
sists of two gouges, three skew chisels, one cut- 
ting-off tool, and one round-nose. The gouges 
should be about 1J4 i n - and ^ in. in width. The 
skew chisels V-/\ in., y% in. and ]/\ in., and the 
round nose about J^ in. or y§ in. wide. Besides 
these tools there should be in each kit a pair of 
six-inch outside and a pair of six-inch inside cali- 
pers ; also a good slip-stone and a brass-edged, 
two- fold foot rule. 

The Gouge Used as a Roughing Tool. 

The gouge is the first tool used to turn off the 
corners of the square stock and enough more to 
produce a cylinder slightly larger than the fin- 
ished diameter desired. (Fig. 17.) For this 



SPINDLE TURNING 



15 



work the lathe should be started on slow speed. 
High speed should be used only after a cylinder 




fm^ 



Fig. 17. 

is formed. In holding the gouge, one stands 
firmly on the floor with the left hand resting on 




Fig 



the tool and the wrist dropped (Fig. 18) to al- 
low the hand while guiding the tool back and 
forth to be held against the rest. The body is 




Fig. 19. 



turned slightly, so that 
the left side is nearer the 
work than the right (if 
the operator is right- 
handed) and the right 
hand holds the handle of 
the tool as one ordinarily 
grasps a hammer handle. 
(Fig. 19.) The tool, as 
it touches the revolving 
stock, is run back and 
forth over the rest from 
end to end, taking off 
a uniform amount of 
wood. This is possible 
because the hand in its 
position acts as a guide, 
thus making the process 
somewhat mechanical. It 
is customary to have the 
tool rolled slightly on the 
rest as it moves back and 
forth with its handle at 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



right angles to the center line of work (Fig. 
20). The rolling is in the direction of the tool's 
motion and is done to throw the chips away from 
the operator. This is a matter of little conse- 




Fig\ 20. 



quence, however, except for the convenience of 
the workman, so long as the rolling is only slight. 
Rolling the tool very much would interfere with 
its work in cutting. 

The chief thing which needs attention in the use 
of the gouge as a roughing tool is this : The sur- 




Fig. 21. 



face of the gouge, which is ground to form the 
cutting edge, must always be kept approximate- 
ly a tangent surface to the revolving cylinder. 
This is necessary in or- 
der that the tool will cut 
(Fig.21) and not scrape. 
(Fig. 22.) By scrap- 
ing one means the 
wearing off of the 
wood by the tool be- 
cause it is not held in 
this tangent or cutting 
position. 

Turning with the 
gouge may be continuous 
from the time one starts 
to cut with it until the 

desired diameter is obtained (except for stopping 
to test diameters with the calipers). By pushing 
the tool through the left hand, thus keeping it 
continually in contact with the revolving stock 
as the cylinder decreases in diameter, it may be 
pushed first to the right and then to the left with- 




Fig\ 22. 



SPINDLE TURNING 



\, 



out stopping. The tool should be held rather 
firmly but not rigidly. 

One may become quite expert in turning a 
smooth and accurately dimensioned cylinder with 
the gouge by allowing the tool to move slowly, 
but with a regular motion, back and forth over 
the rest. It is well to remember to allow the left 
hand to act as a guide by dropping the wrist so 
that the palm of the hand is in practically a verti- 
cal position. One may become ambidextrous in 
the use of the gouge and in fact with all wood 
turning tools. It is questionable whether this is 
wise or not ; it is certainly unnecessary. 



The Skew Chisel Used to Turn a Cylinder. 

After the gouge has been used to turn the 
stock to cylindrical dimensions slightly larger 
than the finished diameter, the large skew chisel 
replaces it. This is held the same as the gouge, 
as previously described, except that the wrist of 



the left hand is not dropped ; it may be, but 
greater freedom will be obtained by holding the 
palm of the hand flat on the blade of the skew 




Fig. 23. 



chisel and allowing only the fleshy part of it and 
the little finger to rub on the rest (Fig. 2'3), thus 
forming an arch over the tool. The blade is first 
laid flat upon the revolving cylinder and the rest. 



18 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



Fig. 24. 



It is then drawn down toward the operator (Fig. 
24) sliding underneath the left hand until the heel 
of the tool drops to allow 
the lower ground surface, 
which forms the cutting 
edge, to come in contact 
with the revolving surface. 
When this happens the flat 
surface of the tool blade 
will no longer remain in 
contact with the lathe rest. The blade will be in 
contact with it only on one edge. (Fig. 23.) A 
very slight continuation of the motion of the tool 
toward the operator will bring the center of the 
cutting edge in contact with the cylindrical sur- 
face, when the tool will begin to cut. The tool 
should now be held steadily on the rest in this 
last contact position with the wood, and moved 
toward the end of the revolving piece nearest the 
heel of the tool. The stroke is continued past the 
end of the wood. 

The above operation is repeated, alternately 
reversing' the direction of the tool until the re- 



quired diameter of stock is reached. The tool 
should never be started from the end and run 
toward the center of the stock but always from 
the center and run toward the ends. This sug- 
gestion is given in order that the tool may not 
catch, as it enters upon its cut, on the end of the 
stock, resulting in a bite. 

The geometrical analogy of the relation of the 
tool to the revolving cylinder of wood is that of 
a plane tangent to a cylinder. The lower surface 
forming the edge of the tool is the tangent plane 
and this surface cannot have any other relation 
to the revolving cylinder except that of a tangent 
plane, and allow the edge to cut. 

The Skew Chisel Used to Square the Ends 
of a Piece. 

After the cylinder is turned it is usually neces- 
sary to square the ends to procure a definite 
length. This is done with the toe of the skew 
chisel. The blade of the chisel is rested on its 
edge upon the lathe rest and turned enough out 



SPINDLE TURNING 




of the position perpendicular to the center line 
of the revolving stock to allow the ground sur- 
face of the tool, which is nearest to the stock and 
which forms the cutting 
edge, to be perpendicular 
to the line of centers. 
(Fig. 25.) The right 
hand holds the handle 
and the left hand grasps 
the blade of the tool and 
the lathe-rest together 
by having the thumb on 
the rest and against the 
left surface of the blade. (Fig. 25.) The forefinger 
is placed under the rest and the last three fingers 
of the hand go under the blade and rest on the 
right side of it. The toe of the chisel is now 
"hinged" into the revolving stock by keeping the 
blade in contact with the rest and raising the 
handle of the tool. As this is done, two things 
must be kept in mind. First, the cutting edge 
must always point toward the center of revolu- 
tion. (Fig. 26). Second, the ground surface 



Fig. 25. 



above referred to must be kept approximately 
perpendicular to the center line of revolution. If 
this latter condition is not maintained and the 
cutting edge of the tool is allowed to turn (even 
slightly) into the stock, a run will be the result. 





Fig, 



Fig. 27. 



(Fig. 27). A run is a spiral cut made by a turn- 
ing tool and caused by the operator's losing con- 
trol of the tool, so as to permit it to catch in the 
wood. A run is always started by allowing the 
cutting edge to come in contact with the end of 
the piece when only the toe or heel should have 
contact. 

In case the end is to be formed at some little 
distance from the lathe centers, the tool must be 



20 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



used alternately as above described to form the 
new end, and as follows to clear away the stock: 
After the first end cut (as above described) is 
made, by hinging the toe of the tool into the 




Fig. 28. 

stock, the blade is tipped on the rest and at the 
same time turned on the rest to permit of two 
things : First, the ground surface nearest the 
lathe center to take the tangent position to a slant 
cut or conical surface toward the bottom of the 



end cut just made, which will produce with the 
end cut a right V ; second, to turn the tool out of 
the position perpendicular to the center line of 
stock enough to allow the 
lower ground surface 
forming the cutting edge 
to be tangent to the coni- 
cal surface of the V cut. 
(Fig. 28.) In the coni- 
cal cut, as well as in the 
end cut, forming this 
right V, the toe is the 
point of contact and 
must be moved inward, 
keeping the cutting edge 
pointing toward the center line. (Fig. 29.) 

The Skew Chisel Used to Make a Long V or 
Taper Cut. 

There is only one difference between using the 
skew chisel to cut a cylinder and using it to cut 
a taper or a long cone. As has been said the cen- 




Fis 



29. 



SPINDLE TURNING 



ter of the cutting edge is used to make the cylin- 
drical cut. It is also used to make the taper cut 
(or may be) except at the point where the taper 
begins. At this point the heel should be used. 
Keeping in mind the very essential point with 
reference to tangency, we will immediately appre- 
ciate the necessity of tipping the blade of the 
skew chisel on the lathe rest in order to make the 
lower ground surface of the blade, forming the 
cutting edge, a tangent plane to the taper, or cone 
to be formed. This tipping of the tool will give it 
a contact on the rest only on one edge of the 
blade, and consequently should the operator start 
the cut with the center of the cutting edge there 
would be a leverage produced which would almost 
certainly result in a backward movement of the 
tool. This would cause a slight gouging of the 
stock back of the desired starting point of the 
taper. For this reason the taper is started with 
the heel, and as the tool runs down the taper it 
may be drawn toward the operator to allow the 
center point of the cutting edge to cut, as in the 
case of a cylinder. However, it is quite as satis- 



factory to let the heel continue to be the point of 
contact and the cutting point on the cutting edge 
for the entire cut. If this is done care must be 
taken not to tip the tool enough to gouge the 




Fig. 30. 



stock or make a "scooped" taper, as indicated 
by dotted lines. (Fig. 30.) It is very easy in 
making the taper cut with the heel of the tool to 
tip the tool too much, thereby cutting too deeply 
into the stock and destroying the taper desired. 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



The Skew Chisee Used to Make Inside 
Square Corners. 

The skew chisel is used much the same in 
making an inside square corner as it is in making 
the long taper, except that the tool is not tipped 
on the lathe rest. After the stock is turned down 
to the diameter of the largest part of the finished 
piece it is laid off for the lengths of parts by using 
a sharp pencil (or the point of a knife) and a 
ruler held against the stock as it revolves. The 

cutting-off tool may 
be used to deter- 
mine the approxi- 
mate diameters of 
the smaller parts 
of the finished 
piece by hinging it 
into the wood and 
keeping the lower 
ground surface tangent to the revolving stock at 
all times. (Fig.31.) This cutting-off cut should be 
made far enough away from the lines made with 




Fig. 31. 



the pencil or knife, when laying out, to allow the 
ends of the large parts or steps to be finished with 
the toe of the skew chisel as described under 
"The Skew Chisel Used to Square the Ends of a 
Piece." 

After the cut has been made with the cutting- 
off tool, to determine the small diameters, all 
superfluous stock on the small parts may be 



V 



Fig. 32. 



roughed off with a gouge. (Fig. 32.) The finish- 
ing cut on these parts should be made with a 
skew chisel. As in using the skew chisel to cut 
a cylinder, the skew for this work is drawn down 
toward the operator and held firmly on the lathe 
rest and revolving stock until the heel drops to 



SPINDLE TURNING 



23 



allow the lower ground surface, which forms the 
cutting edge, to come in contact with the wood 
as a tangent plane. Instead of continuing to 
draw the tool downward, it is stopped when the 
heel becomes the contact point and the tool is 




Fig. 33. 



moved toward the large part of the stock. (Fig. 
33.) By this means the heel does the cutting, 
and one is able to make a clean cut into the cor- 
ner which would not be possible if any other 
point on the cutting edge was the cutting, or con- 
tact point. Of course the tool is placed on the 
rest at first with the heel nearest the large part 
of the stock. 



The Small Skew Chisel Used to Make V 

Cuts. 

The method of using the skew chisel to make 
the V cut has been partly described under the 
head, "The Skew Chisel Used to Square the 
Ends of a Piece," where the method of forming a 
finished end some distance from the first end of 
stock was discussed. After the width dimensions 
of the V's have been laid off, the toe of the skew 
chisel is "hinged" into the stock at the center of 
each V as though this center point marked the 
end of the finished piece. The tool cannot be 
hinged far into the stock, however, without being 
burned. To avoid this and to produce a* clean 
cut, the "clearance" cut must be taken. This is 
made by tipping the tool on the rest enough to 
allow the lower ground surface, which forms the 
cutting edge, to take a position parallel to the 
required side of the V. The tool is held in this 
relative position to the revolving stock, and suc- 
cessive "hinge" cuts are taken with" the toe trav- 
eling toward the center line. By alternating 



24 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



these cuts and the vertical cuts on the center 
line of the V one-half of the V will be completed. 



A <\ 




Fig. 34. 

(Fig. 34.) The other half is made by taking the 
successive "hinge" cuts above referred to but in 
the opposite direction and on the other side of 
the V. 

The Skew Chisee Used to Make the Convex 
or Bead Cut. 



The convex or bead cut is usually considered 
the hardest of all wood-turning cuts. It is made 
with the heel of the skew chisel and the method 
used is, in a sense, a combination of the methods 
used in the taper and the square end cuts already 
described. The stock is first laid off and cut or 



turned into consecutive large and small cylinders, 
the large cylinders to the diameter and width of 
the beads and the small cylinders to the diameter 
and width of the stock between the beads. This 
is done with the cutting-off tool and small skew 
chisel, as described under "The Skew Chisel 
Used to Make Inside Square Corners." 

The convex or bead cut is made on this series 
of large cylinders as follows : The heel of the 
skew chisel is placed 
at the center of the 
large cylinder in 
the position taken 
to cut an inside 
square corner. 
(Fig. 35.) This 
means that the low- 
er ground surface, 
forming the cutting 
edge of the tool, is 

tangent to the revolving stock and that the heel 
is the point of contact. The tool is tipped on 
the rest and the handle moved toward the left 




Fig. 35. 



SPINDLE TURNING 



or the right (to the left if the left side of the 
bead is being cut, and to the right if the right 
side of the bead is being cut), and "hinged" into 
the stock with the heel traveling toward the 
center line until the bottom 
of the bead is reached. The 
position of the tool at the end 
of the cut is similar to the one 
taken when the square end cut 
is made, except that in this the 
heel is in contact with the 
stock instead of the toe. (Fig. 
36.) A continuous cut should 
be taken from the top to the bottom of the bead. 
Besides the condition of continually having the 
heel traveling toward the line of centers, two 
other points must be kept in mind in making this 
cut: First, the lower ground surface, forming 
the cutting edge of the tool, must be at all times 
tangent to the revolving stock at the point of con- 
tact, and tangent also to the curve of the bead ; 
second, a free and easy stroke must be made with 
the tool from the beginning to the end of the cut, 




in which the tool continuously keeps changing 
position in two particulars : one, the center line of 
the tool keeps changing its angle with the line of 
centers; and, two, the surface of the blade keeps 
changing its angle with reference to the revolv- 
ing surface. 

The Gouge Used to Make the Concave Cuts. 

For many the concave cut is more difficult at 
first than the convex cut, but almost without 
exception it is an easier cut to make after one has 
once mastered the principles involved. As in the 
case of the convex cut, the stock is laid off and 
roughed out before the gouge is used to make the 
finishing cut. The gouge (preferably a medium- 
sized one) is placed upon the rest having its con- 
cave side up, with the forefinger of the left hand 
under the rest and the thumb on top of the blade 
of the tool. Held in this position it is "hinged" 
into the stock at the middle points of the concave 
cuts enough to make an opening for the tool to 
be used as below described. 



26 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD- TURNING 



The gouge is placed on edge on top of the rest 
in such a position that the center line of the 
ground surface, forming the cutting edge, is per- 
pendicular to the line of centers, and the center 




Fig. 37. 

line of the tool is pointing toward the center line 
of the revolving stock. (Fig. 37.) The tool in 
this position is pushed into the stock and imme- 
diately rolled on the rest. Care must be taken, 
however, not to roll the tool too rapidly. At the 
same time the handle of the tool is gradually 
dropped and moved in the direction to make the 
handle perpendicular to the line of centers. These 



three motions : rolling, dropping the handle, and 
moving it toward the perpendicular position, are 
continued until the tool is flat upon the rest and 
in the position taken when the roughing cut is 
made to form an opening for the 
tool to take the cut just de- 
scribed. The end of the cut 
should bring the gouge out at the 
top of the stock. (Fig. 38.) This 
is important, for, unless this con- 
dition prevails, the operator will 
not be dropping the handle of the 
tool sufficiently to allow the 
ground surface, forming the cutting edge, to be 
tangent at all times to the revolving cylinder. 





Fig. 39. 

It is advisable to alternate the cuts from left to 
right (Fig. 39) and always toward the bottom 



« 



SPINDLE TURNING 



of the cut to avoid the possibility of the sides of 
the cutting edge of the tool catching and causing 
a "bite." Also in grasping the blade of the tool, 
besides having the forefinger under the rest and 
the thumb on top of the blade, it is well to grip 
the tool onto the rest tightly enough to avoid a 
run. If the center line of the tool is pointing 
directly toward the line of centers a run is im- 
possible, but it is difficult to determine this posi- 
tion exactly; hence, the desirability of the grip 
above spoken of. 



The Gouge Used to Make Convex Cuts. 

Ordinarily the skew chisel is used for convex 
cuts, as described under that head, but the gouge 
may also be used for this purpose. This is espe- 
cially true if the convex surface has a long curva- 
ture such as is found in a chisel handle. 

The blade of the tool is gripped with the thumb 
and forefinger onto the rest, and the tool is 




Fig. 40. 



turned on the rest considerably to point in the 
direction in which the tool is about to move. 
(Fig. 40.) The ground 
surface forming the 
cutting edge is kept 
tangent to the revolv- 
ing surface and the 
center point of the cut- 
ting edge is kept the 
contact point. As the 
diameter of the stock 
decreases, the handle of 
the tool is raised to allow 
the cutting point to drop 
as it approaches the line 

of centers. The tool is brought into the position 
perpendicular to the line of centers as it swings 
around and approaches the end of the curve. 
(Fig. 41.) It finally passes this perpendicular 
position and at the end of the cut takes the posi- 
tion described in making the concave cut, when 
the tool is first put in position for the finishing 
cut. 




Pig. 41. 



28 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 



The cuts described for spindle turning together 
with the tools used may be classified as follows : 



Cuts 

1. Cylinder Cut 

2. Taper Cut 

3. Inside Square Corners 



Tools 
Gouge and skew 
Gouge and skew 
Heel of skew 



Cuts 

4. Squaring Ends 

5. VCut 

6. Convex Cut (short) 

7. Convex Cut (long) 

8. Concave Cut 



Tools 
Toe of skew 
Toe of skew 
Heel of skew 
Gouge 
Gouge 



' 



FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING. 



In general only two classes of tools are used 
for face-plate and chuck turning, viz. : round- 
nose tools and skew chisels. It has been observed 
no doubt, in the discussion on spindle turning, 
that all cuts are made with a view to producing 
a shaving. In other words, in spindle turning the 
several tools are used to cut the wood. In face- 
plate and chuck turning, on the other hand, the 
tools are used as scrapers only. For this reason 
spindle turning is generally considered more 
suitable than face-plate and chuck turning for 
purely educational purposes. Face-plate and 
chuck turning is practised in the schools because 
of its application in the trades and technical 
processes, such as pattern-making. It should be 
considered valuable because it teaches the 
operator methods of handling the wood on the 
lathe. Spindle turning teaches him more par- 
ticularly methods of handling the tool. Stress, 
therefore, should be laid upon the scientific 



handling of tools in spindle turning, and in face- 
plate and chuck turning upon the best methods of 
manipulating the wood to produce the required 
results. 

There are two classes of face-plates used for 
face-plate turning. One, the center-screw face- 
plate, in which the screw may be either fast or 
loose, and the other, the outside or surface-screw 
face-plate. The first of these two should be used 
to fasten onto the lathe blocks of wood which 
do not need deep cutting at the center. The sur- 
face-screw face-plate should be used to fasten all 
large blocks to the lathe— such as chuck blocks 
and blocks from which large objects are to be 
turned. 

Center Screw Face-Plate Turning. 

A good example of the class of work handled 
on the center-screw face-plate is illustrated by 
the darning block and its ring. (Plate 18.) A 



2ft 



30 



PROBLEMS IN WOOD -TURNING 



block is fastened onto the center screw by hold- 
ing it in the right hand against the face-plate 
screw while the left hand turns the head-stock 




Pig. 42. 

spindle until the block comes in contact with the 
surface of the face-plate. (Fig. 42.) This con- 
tact surface of the block should first be planed 
to a level and a hole bored with an auger-bit for 
the screw. The diameter of the bit used for this 
purpose should be the approximate diameter of 
the root of the screw thread at the center of the 
screw. Before the block is placed in position 
the corners should be sawed off to make it 
approximately round. (Fig. 42.) For this pur- 



pose either a hand turning-saw or a band-saw is 
serviceable. For all face-plate and chuck turning 
the lathe rest should be placed in height just 
enough below the center of revolution to allow 
the lathe tool to come in contact with the wood on 
a level with the center. 

The cylindrical surface is roughed off by using 
the toe of the skew chisel as the cutting point and 
pushing the skew chisel squarely toward the face- 
plate over the top of 
the lathe rest, which is 
fastened onto the lathe 
at right angles to the 
ways, and directly in 
front of the revolving 
block. (Fig. 43.) This 
surface may be 
smoothed by scraping 
it with the round-nose 
chisel. For this pur- 
pose the lathe rest is fastened in the usual posi- 
tion for spindle turning. 

The flat surface of the block is roughed off 




Fi| 



43. 



FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING 



with the round-nose chisel and smoothed by using 
the skew chisel on the rest, when it is fastened 
to the lathe at right angles to the ways and in 
front of the revolving block. (Fig. 43.) In fact 
any desired form may be obtained by using the 
different sizes of round-noses 
and skew chisels as scraping 
tools. They should be placed 
flatly on top of the lathe rest, 
which is placed close to the 
revolving surface in the most 
convenient positon for using 
the tool. In general the skew 
chisel is used to scrape con- 
vex surfaces, the round nose to scrape concave 
surfaces and the toe of the skew chisel to cut 
square corners and cylindrical surfaces inside the 
block. (Fig. 44.) 

Whenever the skew chisel in turning the cylin- 
drical surface of a face-plate block, is liable to 
run against the iron face-plate upon which the 
block is fastened, the block should be backed up 
with a thin board about one-fourth inch thick. 




In other words, a thin board should be placed 
between the block and the iron face-plate. 

The ring for the darning block above referred 
to will be cut out of a circular block of wood by 
first turning it to the size of the outside diam- 
eter of the ring, and then cutting out the interior 
of the block by using the skew chisel and round- 
nose over the rest. For this purpose the rest 
should be placed at right angles to the ways. 
The ring should be cut loose from the block by 
using the cutting-off tool as in spindle turning, 
and making the last cuts by holding the tool with 
the right hand and turning the lathe with the 
left. It will be desirable finally to sever the ring 
from this block by using the toe of the skew 
chisel next to the ring in the corner of the cut 
made by the cutting-off tool. 

To fasten the block, out of which the ring is 
cut, onto the lathe, the outside-screw face-plate 
should be used. This is done to hold the stock 
firmly and to avoid the possibility of the stock 
turning on the center screw, should the center- 
screw face-plate be used. 



FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING COMBINED. 



A very good illustration of combined face- 
plate and chuck turning is given in the towel ring, 
Plate 17. A block is fastened to the lathe either 
on the center-screw face-plate or the outside or 
surface-screw face-plate, faced off and turned to 
the size of the outside diameter of the ring. If 
the block is thick enough 
to. allow the screws of the 
surface-screw face-plate to 
enter their full length with- 
out entering the ring to be 
turned, it will be preferable 
to the center-screw face- 
plate for this piece of turn- 
ing, because all of the cen- 
ter part of the ring need not be turned out. 
However, the center-screw face-plate may be 
vised, but it will not hold the stock as well as the 
outside-screw face-plate. 




After the block is surfaced and sized, the cut- 
ting-off tool should be used to cut a groove in 
the block at a distance from the front surface of 
the block a little greater than the thickness of the 
ring. (Fig. 45.) The round-nose is next used to 
cut away the stock to form the hole in the ring. 



<T\ 



^ 


p 


[ 



Fig. 46. 



Fi£ 



The toe of the skew chisel is used to make a 
straight inside cut determining the inside diam- 
eter of the ring. (Fig. 45.) There will now be 
blocked out a ring whose cross section is a square. 
The three outside corners of this ring may be 



32 



FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING COMBINED 



33 



cut off to make three of the sides of an octagonal 
cross sectioned ring. (Fig. 46.) From this the 
circular cross-sectioned ring may be obtained by 



rounding 



the corners of the octagonal form. 



(Fig. 47.) The ring thus far completed may 
now be sandpapered and finished. When this is 




J 



Fig. 48. 



Fig. 49. 



done it should be cut off as described in the case 
of the ring for the darning block. 

The sharp corner on the ring, left after cutting 
the ring from the block, must be turned down by 
reversing the work and placing it in or on a chuck. 
The cup chuck (Fig. 48) is most suitable for this 
particular piece of work, although a pin chuck 
(Fig. 49) might be used. 



A cup chuck is a block of wood — preferably 
soft pine — fastened to a face-plate and turned to 
receive a piece of turning by cupping out the sur- 
face of the block to the size of the outside diam- 
eter of the piece it is to receive. A pin chuck is a 
block fastened to the face-plate on which a cylin- 
der is turned. The piece of turning is slipped 
over this cylinder. In either case the fit should 
be a light driving one. 

After the ring is put on or in the chuck, as the 
case may be, the sharp corner may be turned off 
to produce a ring of circular cross-section. (Fig. 
50.) The portion last turned 
may now be sandpapered 
and finished the same as 
that part of the ring which 
was finished before it was 
cut from the original block. 

Fig-. 

In placing the work in or 

on a chuck its grain should run at right angles 

to the grain of the chuck. 

The two illustrations given in this part of the 
text serve the purpose of explaining the use of 




34 PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING 

the tools in face-plate and chuck turning, and, ferent classes of turning. It is hoped both of 

in a general way, handling stock on the lathe for these things have been done. The author believes ^ 

face-plate and chuck work. that a careful following of the directions herein 

As was stated in the introduction, one of the given will enable one to turn any desired form 

purposes of this book is to simplify the text on in spindle or face-plate and chuck turning, 
turning and to give the use of the tools for dif- 



4A 



FINISHING AND POLISHING. 



I venture to say that the average teacher of 
wood-turning permits the use of sandpaper on all 
turned work except on those pieces which are for 
the specific purpose of showing tool skill. It may 
be practical and sensible from the economic 
point of view to do this, but an article success- 
fully turned in accordance with the cutting prin- 
ciples herein emphasized is finished superior to 
one which is sandpapered subsequent to the turn- 
ing process. 

If the cutting tool has left irregularities in the 
turned contour, very old or fine sandpaper may 
be used before applying the finishing material. 

If a high polish is unnecessary, a very satisfac- 
tory finish can be secured by applying hot boiled 
linseed oil and thoroughly rubbing it down by 



allowing a soft cloth to press against the turned 
work as it revolves. A light application of thin 
shellac may follow this operation when all sur- 
face oil has been absorbed or evaporated. This 
should be rubbed down in the same manner as 
was the oil. 

A high polish can be secured by pressing a 
soft cotton cloth, which has had a very little thin 
shellac placed upon it, against the revolving work. 
The cloth should be moved backward and for- 
ward over the work with uniform speed and 
under light uniform pressure. This operation 
is similar to the one known as "French polishing" 
and requires considerable practice before the best 
results can be obtained. 



3o 



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Suggestive Practice Pieces 

TOOLS: Gouge, Skew Chisel. EXERCISES'. Cylinder^ Conrterr, End. 



a a< 




Plate 1. 



H S 






Suggestive Practice Pieces 

TOOLS: Gouge, Skew Cmset-. EXERCISES'. Tape*,' VStimES, End. 




Plate 2. 



K a- 



Suggest/ye Practice Pieces 

7"OOL<5 - Large Gouaf. Small. Oot/GC . Parting Tool.^ Rowvq Nose, tSn^tv. 

£Vf£T/~?C/'5£'«S * ConCAvr CuTj- Gohyex Ctrr j Convex. k\rvo. 



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8 







Plate 3. 



Suggestive: Practice Pieces 

TOOLS'. Gougcj Skcw CmiscL EXERCISLS '. Fnec Cunre Stuoies 



< I 
11 

C g 

h S 




Plate 4. 



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a « 

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Suggestive Practice Tests 




EXERCISE! Finish Both Pieces of Each Pair o/v O/vc Spihole} Cut inTyio anoFit Together. 






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Pl,ATE 5. 



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Handles 

EXEiFfClSE : Sf^oi-i: ArPL,i«T,o~,. IA/QOD: Maple. 





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riLL 




BI 



SCREW- 






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D=TURN TO 
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TUFtNING CHISEL 



Plate 6. 



Spindle Projects 

EXERCISES? Free Curves, Fitting, Arbor Turning. WOOD'. Poplar , HaroMaple. 



POTATO M ASHE Ft —FULL SIZE 



a < 





T 



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18% 



ROLLING PIN— HALF 3/ZE 




Plate 



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Spindle Projects 

EXERCISE:: ro»M Sroar. WOOD: P/m£, Gum, Poplar. 



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I 



4T 



-I 



CLOVE OAHNER 





Plate 8. 



C I (X 

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Spindle Projects 

EXORCISE: Large DiAiviE-re.Fi , Spihoi.es. WOOD: Hafio Maple. 




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Plate 9. 



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= z s 
°- £ ^ 



Spindle Projects 

EXERCISE: Duplicating Face Cunvrs. WOOD: M^pi-E^CMERRr^GuM. 





TWO Or EACH 




Pl,ATE 10. 



I 



Spindle Projects 

E.XEF{GISL~'. Small. Diamcter Spinolcs. WOOD'. Mamogan>; Chlrry^Walnut. 




I H 



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HANDLE. FOR A 




1 



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? 2 



2 fc 2 




3/1 V£i. HEADS- 




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HANDLE FOR B 



Plate 11. 



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/9o<S£:Tr£:<5 

EXERCISE". Centcr Scncw Face; Platel Wohk. WOOD'. X\*r Sorr VYooo. 




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Plate 12. 



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Pin Tray- 

E.XERGISE'. Center •Schevy Face Platc Won*. WOOD: Poplar, Chehhk 



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Plate 13. 



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Card Recover 
exercise: Ours,™ Sc^Face. Pl« ts Wo**, wood: c«wr, b>»c- 



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Pl.ATE 14. 



9, = - 

C > 71 

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3 c § 

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Desk Tracts 

exercise: r°r™ Stuo<. wood: t°t«*e. f*oui*h. 




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Plate 15. 



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Bread Plate 

EXERCISE: Large: Face Plate. WOOD: Maple, Birch. 




Plate 16. 



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Towel Ring 
exercise: Cup Chuc*. wood: Cose c^-^co. 




Chuck ■ 




Plate 17. 



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Plate 18. 



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Picture: Frame: 

EXERCISE: PinCiugk WOOD'. Close Gm^eo, Haho. 




Plate 19. 



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Napkin R)ngs 

EXEFtCISEZ Face Pi-atc Bon/me, Arteo* Tufwmo. WOOD'. Ct-oss Graineo. 



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Plate 20. 



Cover lq Boxes 

EXERCISE'. FACcPt-ATC, Cnucn, /v™ 6 . WOOD-. Maple, Mahogany, Cnennr. 



g Q g 

EC" 

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5 « 

2 fc £ 

^ £ £ 

a * 

£ 5 



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Plate 21. 



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/?o/^ Pulley Pattern 



EXERCISES'. Api>i-,cat,on 7"u/?/w~e. WOOD'. White Pine. 







rACE PLATE. 



CHUCK 



MANDRCL 



Plate 22. 



5 <a 



F/£ 



Ring Puzzle 

EXERCISES: TuwNG,Bc~onWof,n. WOOD: Poplah. 







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Plate 23. 



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Ring Stake and Jewel Tray 
exercises: ■Sp^oua ««<, e^ce Pl*™ Et T ,^o. wooo: Gu~>,w«ihu-t. 




Plate 24. 



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Low Stool 

EXERCISES: 5im«l P«ooecr Tum N m&. WOOD: Mahogah-t. 





The fii no at the bottom 
of the stool is made in 
four pieces ; the grain 
in each quarter runs 
as shown br grain lines 



Pl,ATE 25. 



u '34 3809 



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